Josephine Baker was a legendary entertainer and civil rights activist. She was celebrated by artists and intellectuals of the era, who variously dubbed her the “Black Venus”, the “Black Pearl”, the “Bronze Venus”, and the “Creole Goddess”. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Baker dazzled audiences in Paris during the 1920s with her captivating performances. Breaking racial barriers, she became one of the first African-American women to achieve global fame.
Beyond her entertainment career, Josephine Baker used her platform to fight for racial equality, making her a prominent figure in the Civil Rights Movement. Her legacy as an icon of empowerment and resilience continues to inspire people worldwide.
Josephine Baker – The Little Girl Refused To Yield To Adversity
The information about her ancestor is limited. Her mother, Carrie, was adopted in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1886 by Richard and Elvira McDonald, former slaves of African and Native American descent. Drummer Eddie Carson is said to be her natural father despite evidence to the contrary.
Josephine McDonald spent her early life on 212 Targee Street (known by some St. Louis residents as Johnson Street) in the Chestnut Valley neighborhood of St. Louis, a racially mixed low-income area near Union Station. Growing up, she faced poverty and hunger, and developed street smarts playing in the railroad yards of Union Station.
Her mother later married Arthur Martin, described as “a kind but perpetually unemployed man”, and had a son and two more daughters. To make ends meet, Carrie took on laundry work, while young Josephine, at just eight years old, began working as a live-in domestic for white families. Unfortunately, one employer abused her, scalding Josephine’s hands for a minor mistake.
In 1917, Josephine witnessed horrifying racial violence in East St. Louis, an experience that left a lasting impact on her. In a speech years later, she recalled what she had seen:
“I can still see myself standing on the west bank of the Mississippi looking over into East St. Louis and watching the glow of the burning of Negro homes lighting the sky. We children stood huddled together in bewilderment … frightened to death with the screams of the Negro families running across this bridge with nothing but what they had on their backs as their worldly belongings… So with this vision I ran and ran and ran…”
By the age of 12, she had already left school behind. One year later, she worked as a waitress at the Old Chauffeur’s Club at 3133 Pine Street. She also lived as a street child in the slums of St. Louis, finding shelter in makeshift cardboard homes, and scrounging for food in trash bins. Her survival depended on dancing on street corners for spare change. It was at the Old Chauffeur’s Club where she met Willie Wells, whom she married at just 13 though the marriage lasted less than a year.
During the vibrant Harlem Renaissance in New York City, she found herself amidst the pulsing energy of the era. She took the stage at the Plantation Club and after several auditions, she landed a spot in the chorus line of the groundbreaking Broadway revue “Shuffle Along” (1921), a production that catapulted the careers of Florence Mills, Paul Robeson, and Adelaide Hall into the limelight.
In her teens, she struggled with strained relationships, particularly with her mother, who disapproved of her pursuit of a career in entertainment. Her mother criticized her for neglecting her second husband, William Howard Baker, whom she had wed at 15 in 1921.
Rise To Fame
Although her career kicked off in New York, it was in Paris where she truly made it big. In a 1974 interview with The Guardian, she shared:
“I didn’t get my first break on Broadway. I was only in the chorus in ‘Shuffle Along’ and ‘Chocolate Dandies.’ I became famous first in France in the twenties. I just couldn’t stand America and I was one of the first coloured Americans to move to Paris. Oh yes, Bricktop was there as well. Me and her were the only two, and we had a marvelous time. Of course, everyone who was anyone knew Bricky. And they got to know Miss Baker as well.”
In Paris, she quickly became a sensation with her bold and sensual dancing, often appearing nearly nude on stage. Her daring performances captivated audiences across Europe, leading to her eventual star role at the Folies Bergère in 1926, where she set new standards for entertainment.
In later shows in Paris, she often shared the stage with her beloved pet cheetah, “Chiquita,” adorned with a diamond collar. Chiquita, known for her unpredictable behavior, would sometimes escape into the orchestra pit, adding an unexpected thrill to the show. Despite the chaos, Baker’s performances only grew in popularity and she became the most successful American entertainer in France. Ernest Hemingway called her “the most sensational woman anyone ever saw.”
In 1929, Baker became the first African-American star to visit Yugoslavia. She often donated some of the show’s earnings to poor children of Serbia.It was during this time that she released her most successful song, “J’ai deux amours” (1931), expressing her love for both her country and Paris. In a 2007 book, Tim Bergfelder, Sue Harris, and Sarah Street claimed that “by the 1930’s, Baker’s assimilation into French popular culture had been completed by her association with the song.”
In 1934, Baker took on the lead role in a revival of Jacques Offenbach’s opera La créole. She dedicated months to vocal training with a coach to prepare for her performances. hirley Bassey, citing Baker as her primary influence, “… she went from a petite danseuse sauvage with a decent voice to la grande diva magnifique… I swear in all my life I have never seen, and probably never shall see again, such a spectacular singer and performer.”
Despite her popularity in France, Baker never achieved equivalent recognition in America. “Time” magazine referred to her as a “Negro wench … whose dancing and singing might be topped anywhere outside of Paris”, while other critics said her voice was “too thin” and “dwarf-like” to fill the Winter Garden Theatre.
Baker Acted As A Spy During World War II
In Sep 1939, when France declared war on Germany following the invasion of Poland, Baker was enlisted by the Deuxième Bureau, the French military intelligence agency, as an “honorable correspondent”. Teaming up with Jacques Abtey, the head of French counterintelligence in Paris, Baker embarked on a covert mission. She mingled with the Germans at various social gatherings, including embassies and nightclubs and charmed them while discreetly gathering valuable information.
Baker’s celebrity status in café society created her access to high-ranking officials from various countries, allowing her to glean insights into enemy activities. She adeptly attended parties and gathered intelligence at the Italian embassy without arousing suspicion.
When the Germans invaded France, Baker went to the Château des Milandes, where she housed people who helped the Free French. As described in Jazz Cleopatra, “She specialized in gatherings at embassies and ministries, charming people as she had always done, but at the same time trying to remember interesting items to transmit.”
In 1941, Baker and her crew traveled to the French colonies in North Africa, officially citing Baker’s health as the reason, although the true motive was to aid the Resistance. Despite her recovery from pneumonia, Baker continued her efforts, establishing a base in Morocco and undertaking tours of Spain.
To gather intelligence, she ingeniously concealed notes on her person, relying on her fame to avoid detection. Baker and her team operated independently and provided entertainment for Free French troops, excluding civilians and waiving admission fees.
After the war, Baker was awarded the Resistance Medal by the French Committee of National Liberation, the Croix de Guerre by the French military.
Baker Supported The American Civil Rights Movement
Even though Baker resided in France, she supported the American Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s. When she and her husband, Jo, visited New York, they faced discrimination, getting turned away from 36 hotels due to their race. This experience prompted her to write articles shedding light on segregation in the United States. She even ventured into the South to speak at Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, about “France, North Africa, and Racial Equality in France.”
She refused to perform for segregated audiences in the U.S., even turning down a $10,000 offer from a Miami club. Eventually, the club complied with her demands. Her insistence on mixed audiences played a role in integrating live entertainment shows in Las Vegas. Despite receiving threatening calls from individuals claiming to be from the Ku Klux Klan, Baker publicly declared that she wasn’t afraid of them.
In 1951, Josephine Baker accused Sherman Billingsley’s Stork Club in Manhattan of racism after being denied service. She also collaborated with the NAACP and earned such renown as a fighter for justice that the NAACP declared May 20, 1951, “Josephine Baker Day.” Nobel Peace Prize winner Ralph Bunche awarded her a life membership with the NAACP, inspiring her to continue her activism, including organizing the “Save Willie McGee” rally.
In 1963, she stood alongside Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. at the March on Washington, where she was the sole official female speaker, championing “Negro Women for Civil Rights”. In her speech, one of the things Baker said:
“ I have walked into the palaces of kings and queens, and into the houses of presidents and much more. But I could not walk into a hotel in America and get a cup of coffee, and that made me mad. And when I get mad, you know that I open my big mouth. And then look out, ’cause when Josephine opens her mouth, they hear it all over the world.”
Josephine Baker’s Final Days
In her later years Baker converted to Catholicism. Despite the passage of time, she continued to stand the stage and captivate audiences at iconic venues such as the Olympia in Paris, Carnegie Hall, and the London Palladium.
In her final days, Baker was found lying peacefully in her bed, surrounded by newspapers adorned with glowing reviews of her recent performances. However, her tranquility was soon interrupted by a cerebral hemorrhage, which left her in a coma. She was taken to Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, where she peacefully passed away at the age of 68 on April 12, 1975.
